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Ion pumps actively transporting ions such as H + , Na + , K + , Ca 2+ and Cu 2+ produce and maintain electrochemical ion gradients across the cellular membranes which are subsequently used by secondary active ion-coupled transporters to deliver molecules in antiport (also known as exchange) or symport (also known as co-transport) of these ions (45, 46)

Its safety, efficacy, appropriate dosing, and long-term effects in humans have not been established

Patients cannot refuse to understand risks or acknowledge contraindications-those are non-negotiable parts of informed consent

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Less common side effects include diarrhea and fatigue